Geography Optional Answer Writing Day-15 Synopsis. As per the scheme of this program we are providing the detailed synopsis for the questions of the Day-15. The model answers or synopsis given here does not adhere to word limits. The answers in this synopsis tries to cover more points. But in the exam aspirants are requested to write more relevant points so as to justify word limit.
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Question number 1 and 2 answers are not given. Aspirants are requested to work on their own.
Q.3) ‘Atolls present the most challenging explanation in the evolution of coral reefs’. Discuss (2012) (20 marks)
Approach
- Define atolls in the introduction
- Then brief about evolution of atolls through various theories.
- Mention drawbacks of each theory.
- Conclude.
Answer
A ring of narrow growing corals of horse shoe shape and crowned with palm trees is called atoll. It is generally found around an island or in elliptical form on a submarine platform. There is a lagoon in the middle of coral ring. The depth of lagoon ranges between 70 to 150 meters (240 to 420 feet).
The problem of the origin of coral reefs in general and atoll in particular is highly complex. Several contrasting theories have been advanced to explain the mode of origin of different types of coral reefs.
If the salient features of all the theories are considered carefully then it becomes obvious that these theories have been based on two considerations viz. Pleistocene sea level changes and the stability or instability of the land involved in the formation of coral reefs.
The theories of origin of corals has been broadly grouped into two categories subsidence theory and standstill theory.
According to Darwin’s subsidence theory fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls are successive stages of the development of coral reefs. He was of the view that the corals could grow only in shallow waters.
According to him the land or island involved in the origin and growth of coral reefs is seldom stationary rather it undergoes gradual subsidence. At the beginning fringing reef forms which over the time develops into barrier reef with subsidence of land.
As the time progresses the barrier reef evolves into the atoll with the subsidence of land. There is further subsidence of the land and the island is completely submerged under water and a ring of coral reef in the form of atoll is formed. It may be pointed not invoke sudden and rapid subsidence of land rather he conceived gradual and slower rate o and subsidence than the rate of upward growth of corals so that they could never find themselves in deeper waters.
However, if the subsidence theory is accepted then most of the islands of the Pacific Ocean would be submerged. There are also some evidences of the existence of atolls (coral reefs) associated with the emerging islands.
Observations reveal that all the forms viz. fringing, barrier and atolls are present on the platform at same sea level.
According to standstill theory of Murray, Corals grow upon suitable stable submarine platforms with unchanging sea level.
Coral Polyps can live up to depth of 30 fathoms (180 feet). Sea level and submarine platforms are stable. Several submarine platforms, volcanic peaks, islands are present.
After getting suitable depth of 180 feet, coral polyps start growing to form “fringing reefs”. Continuous outward growing of polyps form “barrier reefs”. Atolls are formed due to outward growth of corals in all directions at the top of submarine platform. Lagoon side of atoll is by dead corals while seaward side has living corals which continuously grow outward.
Evaluations:
- Submarine platforms not possible to find everywhere.
- Marine erosion and deposition at depth of 30 fathoms are contradictory.
- Lagoons might be filled with depositions if land is stable.
- Reefs are found from below 30 fathoms also.
Daly propounded his glacial control theory in 1915. He said Corals formed after Pleistocene Ice age.
The corals in sea died due to the fall in sea level and lowering temperature because of glaciation on continents during Pleistocene age. ‘Wave cut platforms’ were formed due to sea waves. At the end of ice age, the ice melted, resulting into rise of sea level above the ‘ Wave cut platforms’ at coasts. The corals, which were able to survive in ice age grown above the ‘ Wave cut platforms’. Atolls were formed around isolated wave eroded island peaks.
According to this theory the lagoons inside atolls should have uniform depth, but which is not true in reality. And cliffs formed around islands of atolls should have been present till today which are seldom found.
Thus, in each theory the depth of lagoon inside the atolls, its sedimentation, stable or subsidence of lagoon are not satisfactorily addresses.
Q.4) Bring out the various ecological problems associated with the exploitation and use of oceans and their resources. (2016) (15 marks)
Approach
- Define marine resources in the introduction.
- Mention the marine resource and use of oceans.
- Explain the ecological issues associated with each of these activities.
- Conclude.
Answer
Exploitation of Marine Resources includes exploitation of both living marine organisms, and also of non-living (mineral) resources, as well as many intangible resources. Examples include:
Living Resources
- Fisheries
- Marine mammals
- Marine reptiles
- Shellfish
- Marine algae
Non-living Resources
- Oil and gas (90% of the mineral value exploited from the oceans)
- Sand and gravel (2nd in value to oil)
- Magnesium, salts
- Copper sulfide ores
- Manganese nodules and sulfide deposits
- Cobalt-rich manganese crusts
- Sulfur, phoshorite, coal
Intangible Resources
- Tourism
- Biodiversity
- ecosystem functioning
Ecological problems associated with fishery
Overfishing transforms an originally stable, mature and efficient ecosystem into one that is immature and stressed. This happens in various ways. By targeting and reducing the abundance of high-value predators, fisheries deeply modify the trophic chain and the flows of biomass (and energy) across the ecosystem.
They can also alter habitats, most notably by destroying and disturbing bottom topography and the associated habitats (e.g. seagrass and algal beds, coral reefs) and benthic communities.
The alteration of the habitat by various human activities may be physical (e.g. by adding artificial structures like artificial reefs, oil rigs, aquaculture installations), mechanical (e.g. through the “ploughing” effect of dredges and trawls), or chemical (e.g. through injection of nutrients, pesticides, heavy metals, drugs, hormones).
Fishing may result in changes in productivity of resources (some positive and some negative) and affects associated species. Some aspects of fisheries can have significant and long-lasting effects, e.g. destructive fishing techniques using dynamite or cyanides or inadequate fishing practices (e.g. trawling in the wrong habitat); pollution from fish processing plants; use of ozone-depleting refrigerants; dumping at sea of plastic debris that can entangle marine animals or be swallowed by turtles; loss of fishing gear, possibly leading to ghost fishing; lack of selectivity, affecting associated and dependent species, resulting in wasteful discarding practices, juvenile mortality, added threat to endangered species, etc. Poorly-managed large-scale ariculture can damage coastal wetlands and nearshore ecosystems, often used as nurseries by key capture fishery resources, and contribute to ecosystem contamination with food residues, waste, antibiotics, hormones, diseases and alien species.
Ecological issues of mining in oceans
Due to mining in oceans removal of parts of the sea floor will result in disturbances to the benthic layer, increased toxicity of the water column and sediment plumes from tailings. Removing parts of the sea floor could disturb the habitat of benthic organisms, with unknown long-term effects. Aside from the direct impact of mining the area, some researchers and environmental activists have raised concerns about leakage, spills and corrosion that could alter the mining area’s chemical makeup.
Effects of Oil Drilling Have on the Ocean
Oil spills due to accidents end up negatively affecting coral reefs and aquatic life. When birds and other sea creatures get oiled, they lose their potential of hunting for food for their survival. Spills also expose individuals to seafood that is not safe for consumption.
Offshore drilling physically interrupts the seabed environment and the benthic group. From the actual trail of the drilling rig, the underwater pipelines, searching ship channels and the cuttings and other debris from drilling, there are a lot of elements of drilling that leave a long-lasting effect on the sea floor.
Ecological issues of ocean energy harnessing
Coastal Erosion – Onshore and near-shore schemes may have an effect on coastal erosion due to alteration of currents and waves. Tidal velocities, wave amplitude and water flow maybe altered in proportion to the scale of the array.
Environmental – While wave energy produces no greenhouse gases or other atmospheric pollutants whilst generating electricity, emissions do arise from other stages of its construction, transportation and life cycle. Also potential impacts associated with the release and leakage of hydraulic fluids for hydraulic rams, power trains, lubricating oils and fluids, anti-corrosion and biofouling paints and coatings into the surrounding seas.
Marine Eco-system – Marine mammals may be vulnerable to the floating structures or they may act as barriers to marine movement and migration affecting the fauna and flora on the seabed. Most offshore wave energy devices are moored directly to the sea floor and mooring lines could pose a threat of entanglement for some animals, especially larger whales. Floating wave energy devices could entice sea birds to use the structures as temporary roosts.
Good governance, an enabling environment, sustainable land- and marine- based human activities, and adequate measures will be required to reduce the negative anthropogenic impacts on the marine environment, for example due to a more sustainable use of resources, changes in production and consumption patterns and improved management and control of human activities.
Q.5) What is forest governance? How the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA) encourages forest governance. Explain. (15 marks)
Approach
- Define forest governance in the introduction.
- Explain its features and how the features helping the Gram Sabha to democratize the forest governance with 2-3 examples.
- Conclude.
Answer
Forest governance refers to the organizations, people, rules, instruments and processes through which decisions are made relating to forests. Key elements of good forest governance include the existence of effective institutions, transparency, low levels of corruption, consistent and clear legislation, secure forest tenure and access rights, and political stability. The absence of these often lies at the root of illegal logging.
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA) recognises that forest-dwelling communities have three kinds of rights—individual rights (occupation and cultivation); community rights (grazing, fuelwood collection, fishing, ownership and disposal of non-timber forest produce or NTFP, among others); and, rights to protect, regenerate, conserve and manage community forest resource (CFR) areas.
Section 5 and Rules 4(1)(e) and 4(1)(f) of the FRA give Gram Sabhas (GS) the authority to protect wildlife, forests, biodiversity, catchment areas, water sources, ecologically sensitive areas and habitats of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups. It is also the responsibility of the GS to ensure compliance with decisions taken to regulate access to CFRs and stop any activity which adversely affects wild animals, forests and the biodiversity. GSs are to constitute committees under Rule 4(1)(e) to prepare conservation and management plans for CFRs in order to sustainably and equitably manage CFR areas.
For example, 20 villages in the Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife Sanctuary of Gujarat’s Narmada district got their Community Forest Rights titles, the Gram Sabhas of these villages have taken a step forward in democratization of forest governance.
The management plan is not scientific and prepared by the community using their traditional knowledge. The plan has provisions for natural regeneration of forest land levelled to make agriculture possible. The plan also has sections on development of watersheds. It aims to focus on forest, land and water management.
Another example, A resolute fight put up by about 1,000 households of Balarampur, a non-descript village in central Odisha’s Dhenkanal district, has forced the government to retreat and scrap a Rs 102 crore brewing project, which was to be established inside a forest protected by villagers for more than four decades.
Villagers under the banner of Balarampur Gramya Parichalana Parishad (BGPP) moved Orissa High Court (HC) objecting acquisition of Jhinkargadi land in 2017. Subsequently, the HC sought a status report. It, however, did not deter the administration to go slow. Villagers also approached the National Green Tribunal, which is also hearing the matter.
These are the just two examples which explains how the FRA democratized the forest governance. However there are frequent issues of encroaching the forests by the governments and mainstream society for their benefits at the cost of tribes.
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